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 Notes on Grammar and Usage |
The Verb
The Infinitive
The infinitive sometimes functions as a verbal noun and, as such, may be used as a subject <el viajar por avión es más rápido traveling by air is faster>. It may also be used as the object of a verb <él quería marcharse he wanted to leave>, or as the object of a preposition <se fue sin darles nada he left without giving them anything>.
The Present IndicativeThe present indicative tense in Spanish translates not only the simple English present, but the English emphatic and progressive forms as well < ella habla español she speaks Spanish, she does speak Spanish, or she is speaking Spanish>. The present indicative may be substituted in both English and Spanish for the future < mañana voy a La Paz tomorrow I am going to La Paz>.
The Imperfect Indicative
The imperfect indicative tense denotes that an action or a state was continuing or being repeated in past time. As the name implies, the tense gives an impression of incompleteness <los pájaros cantaban the birds were singing>. It is commonly used to indicate that an action was going on when something else happened <comíamos cuando nos llamó we were eating when he called us>. It is also appropriate for descriptions and for expressing mental and physical states in past time <ellos no eran felices they were not happy>.
The Preterit Indicative
The preterit is a past tense which implies that an act was completed at a definite time in the past. It is the tense commonly used in narration to denote happenings and events <Ana entró en la sala Anna entered the room>. The preterit stands in contrast to the imperfect, which provides the circumstances or setting in which the events of the preterit occur <hablaban de la política cuando Ana entró en la sala they were talking about politics when Anna entered the room>.
The Future Indicative
Simple future time is expressed most directly by the future indicative <vendrán mañana they will come tomorrow>. The future tense may also express present probability <serán las diez it must be about ten o'clock>.
The Conditional Indicative
As in English, the conditional is used in indirect discourse <dijo que iría he said that he would go> and in the main clause of a contrary-to-fact statement <si fuera rico, lo compraría if I were rich, I would buy it>. The conditional may also express probability in past time <serían las dos cuando llegó a casa it must have been about two o'clock when he came home>.
The Imperative Mood
The imperative mood is used to express affirmative commands in the second person. Its use is limited to familiar speech <Juan, vuelve a casa John, go back home>. Since object pronouns are attached to the imperative, a written accent is often necessary <siéntate, chico sit down, little one>. Commands in the first and third persons and negative second person commands are formed using the subjunctive mood.
The Subjunctive Mood
The subjunctive is used to express commands in the first and third persons, for which there exist no forms in the imperative mood <que hable ella let her speak>. The form usted is considered a third person form <escriba usted la carta en seguida write the letter at once>. When the object pronoun nos follows the first person plural of the subjunctive, the final s of the verb is dropped <sentémonos let's sit down>. The subjunctive is used to express negative commands in the second person <no hables así don't talk like that>.
The subjunctive mood deals with the realms of subjectivity and uncertainty and is primarily used in subordinate clauses.
The subjunctive is used in noun clauses when the verb of the main clause expresses volition <no quiero que nadie le maltrate I don't want anyone to hurt him>. It is also used when the verb of the main clause expresses an emotion <temía que le mataran she was afraid that they would kill her>. When doubt or denial is implied by the main clause verb, the subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause <es dudoso que lleguen a tiempo it is doubtful that they will arrive on time>.
The subjunctive is used in the adverb clause with temporal conjunctions that imply indefiniteness or future intention <esperaremos hasta que vuelvan we will wait until they return>. Other temporal conjunctions that may require the subjunctive are: así que (as soon as), antes de que (before), cuando (when), después de que (after), en cuanto (as soon as), hasta que (until), luego que (as soon as), mientras (while), and tan pronto como (as soon as). The subjunctive is also used when the conjunction indicates purpose or proviso <haga usted la letra clara para que la leamos fácilmente make the writing clear so that we may read it easily>. Some conjunctions that indicate purpose or proviso and thus may require the subjunctive are: a fin de que (so that), a menos que (unless), aunque (although), con tal que (provided that), de manera que (so that), de modo que (so that), en caso de que (in case), para que (in order that), and sin que (without).
The subjunctive is used in adjective clauses if the antecedent is indefinite or negative <busco un cuarto que no sea demasiado pequeño I am looking for a room which is not too small> <no hay nadie que pueda ayudarnos there is no one who can help us>.
Contrary-to-fact statements require a subjunctive verb in the subordinate clause <si yo fuera usted, vendría en seguida if I were you, I would come at once>. The conditional tense is used in the main clause.
The tense of the subjunctive depends on the tense of the main clause verb. The present and perfect tenses of the subjunctive are used in a dependent clause after present or future tenses in the main clause <siento que usted esté enfermo I am sorry that you are sick>. After any past tense in the main clause, the imperfect or the pluperfect subjunctive is used in the dependent clause <queríamos que ella nos acompañara we wanted her to accompany us>.
There are two forms of the imperfect subjunctive. The -ra form is more commonly used in Latin America and northern Spain, while both the -ra and -se forms are used in central and southern Spain. Both forms are fully conjugated in the Spanish Verb Table.
The Present Participle
The present participle is invariable in form. In dependent constructions, it denotes action going on at the time or immediately before the time of the main verb <llegando tarde, no encontré a nadie arriving late, I found no one>. The present participle is used with the verb estar to form progressive constructions <el señor está esperando the gentleman is waiting>. The idea of verbal continuity of the action can also be conveyed by the verbs ir (to go), seguir (to continue), andar (to go), and venir (to come) <ellos seguían leyendo they continued reading>.
The Past Participle
The past participle is an adjective that expresses the verbal idea in a completed state. It agrees in number and gender with the substantive to which it refers, except when used after the verb haber to form the perfect tenses <todos estaban dormidos all were asleep>.
For each simple tense of the Spanish verb there is a perfect tense formed by the corresponding simple tense of haber and the past participle of the main verb. The past participle used with haber is invariable in form. In general, the perfect tenses in Spanish have the same relation to the simple tenses as they have in English:
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Present Perfect <ella me ha escrito una carta she has written me a letter>
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Pluperfect <sabíamos que usted había llegado we knew that you had arrived>
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Future Perfect <se habrá marchado cuando usted llegue he will have gone when you arrive>
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Preterit Perfect <apenas hubo llegado cuando vino a verme he had hardly arrived when he came to see me>
Note that the preterit perfect is a rare tense used in literary style after conjunctions that express immediate priority of time such as apenas (hardly), así que (as soon as), and luego que (as soon as).
The Passive Voice
The true passive voice, in which the subject is acted upon, is formed by the auxiliary ser with the past participle, which agrees in gender and number with the subject <la oveja fue devorada por el lobo the sheep was devoured by the wolf>. Note that the agent, when expressed, is introduced by the preposition por. The passive voice is not used often in Spanish, except when the agent is expressed. The English passive voice is frequently translated into Spanish by a reflexive construction <aquí se habla español Spanish is spoken here>.
The verb estar is used with a past participle to express not a passive act, but a passive state <la ventana está rota the window is broken>.
Reflexive Verbs
A verb is reflexive when both its subject and pronoun object (direct or indirect) refer to the same person or thing <María se miró en el espejo Mary looked at herself in the mirror>. In English only transitive verbs are used reflexively. In Spanish the reflexive construction is extended to intransitive verbs <me quedaré aquí I will stay here>. Impersonal and general statements may be expressed in Spanish by the reflexive <se dice que ella es rica it is said that she is rich>.
Ser and Estar
Ser is used to express a quality or characteristic of the subject <Pablo es alto y guapo Paul is tall and handsome>, the origin of the subject <estos zapatos son de Italia these shoes are from Italy>, and in expressing time and dates <son las dos it is two o'clock>. Impersonal expressions are also formed with the verb ser<es importante estudiar it is important to study>. The passive voice is formed with ser and the past participle <la novela fue escrita por Rulfo the novel was written by Rulfo>.
Estar is used to indicate a state or condition of the subject <nosotros estamos cansados we are tired>. It is also used to express location or position <Felipe estaba en la biblioteca Philip was in the library>. The progressive tenses are formed with estar and the present participle <los chicos están jugando the boys are playing>. The verb estar is also used to express a passive state <la ventana está cerrada the window is closed>.
Some adjectives may be used with either ser or estar. In those cases, use of estar indicates a personal reaction to something whereas ser refers to what is considered a characteristic of the subject by relatively objective standards <ella es joven she is young> <ella está joven she looks young>.
The Noun
Gender of Nouns
In Spanish all nouns are either of masculine or feminine gender.
Feminine:
Nouns that refer to female beings or that end in -a are usually feminine. Some nouns ending in -a, particulary those of Greek origin, are masculine <el clima the climate, el día the day>. Nouns ending in -dad, -tad, -tud, -ión, -umbre, and -ie are generally feminine <la ciudad the city, la voluntad the will, la virtud the virtue, la nación the nation, la muchedumbre the crowd, la serie the series>. The most notable exception is el avión (the airplane). The letters of the alphabet are also feminine.
Masculine:
Nouns that refer to male beings or that end in -o are usually masculine. Note the exceptions <la mano the hand, la radio the radio>. Days of the week, months of the year, and the names of rivers are all masculine. The infinitive used as a noun is also masculine <el esquiar es difícil skiing is difficult>.Masculine nouns ending in -o change to -a to form the feminine <el hijo the son, la hija the daughter>. Masculine nouns that refer to people and that end in -or, -és, or -n add -a to form the feminine <el autor, la autora the author>. A few masculine nouns that end in -e change to -a to form the feminine <el monje the monk, la monja the nun>. A few titles add -sa or -esa in their feminine form <el conde the count, la condesa the countess>.
Many animate nouns have the same form for both genders <el artista, la artista the artist>. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine, depending on their meaning <el justicia the magistrate, la justicia justice>. The masculine plural form frequently refers to both sexes <los padres the parents (both father and mother)>.
Plural of Nouns
Nouns ending in a vowel form the plural by adding -s <el hombre the man, los hombres the men>. Nouns ending in a consonant other than -s add -es in the plural <el león the lion, los leones the lions>. Nouns ending in -s that are not accented in the last syllable remain unchanged in the plural <el paraguas the umbrella, los paraguas the umbrellas>. In forming the plural, the usual rules of accentuation and spelling must be observed <la luz the light, las luces the lights> <el avión the airplane, los aviones the airplanes>.
The Article
The Definite Article
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
Neuter |
| Singular |
el |
la |
lo |
| Plural |
los |
las |
|
The definite article agrees in number and gender with its noun <el hombre the man, las niñas the girls>. Before feminine singular nouns beginning with a stressed a or ha, the definite article el is used instead of la <el agua the water>.Note the contractions de + el = del and a + el = al.
The neuter article lo combines with the masculine singular form of the adjective to form an expression equivalent to an abstract noun <lo bueno the good>. Lo combines with an adjective of any number and gender in a relative clause <no se daban cuenta de lo enfermas que estaban they did not realize how sick they were>.
The definite article may be used as a demonstrative pronoun. It is regularly found before the preposition de or the relative pronoun que <el verde de las hojas, y el de la hierba the green of the leaves and that of the grass>. The definite article is also used with an adjective of any number or gender to form a noun <las ancianas the old women>.
The definite article is used in Spanish but not in English:
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with a general noun representing an entire class of persons or objects <¿te gusta la música? do you like music?>
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with names of languages, except after the prepositions de or en and immediately after the verb hablar <el inglés English> <hablan francés they speak French>
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before titles not used in direct address <el general Patton General Patton> <está bien, señor Azorín very well, Mr. Azorín>
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before parts of the body and personal possessions <llevaba el sombrero he was wearing his hat>
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before names of the seasons except after de or en <la primavera pasó rápidamente spring passed quickly>
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when the name of a country is modified <la Grecia antigua ancient Greece>
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with the time of day <son las dos it is two o'clock>
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with days of the week except after the verb ser <voy al teatro los viernes I go to the theater on Fridays>
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before infinitives used as nouns <el mentir es un vicio lying is a vice>
The definite article is omitted in Spanish:
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before nouns in apposition <Madrid, capital de España Madrid, the capital of Spain>
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before numerals in the titles of sovereigns <Carlos Quinto Charles the Fifth>
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in certain set expressions <en nombre de Dios in the name of God>
The Indefinite Article
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
| Singular |
un
|
una
|
| Plural |
unos
|
unas
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The indefinite article agrees in number and gender with its noun < una mesa a table, unos libros some books>. Before a feminine noun beginning with a stressed a or ha, the indefinite article un is used instead of una < no quedó ni un alma viviente not a soul remained alive>.
The indefinite article is regularly repeated before nouns of clearly different meaning, whereas in English the indefinite article is used only once <unos libros y unos papeles están en el escritorio some books and papers are on the desk>.
The indefinite article is omitted in Spanish:
-
before predicate nouns denoting a class or group <es soldado he is a soldier>; if the noun is modified, the article is retained <es un buen soldado he is a good soldier>
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after de and como corresponding to English 'as' or 'as a' <servía de consejero he served as an advisor>
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after qué in exclamations <¡qué desastre! what a disaster!>
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before certain adjectives such as ciento (hundred), cierto (certain), medio (half), mil (thousand), and otro (other) <compré mil lápices I bought a thousand pencils>
THE ADJECTIVE
Agreement of Adjectives
Adjectives agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify <una niña bonita a pretty child, libros interesantes interesting books>.
When an adjective modifies two nouns that refer to persons of both sexes or to things of both genders it takes the masculine plural form <Carlos y María se encontraban solos Charles and Mary found themselves alone>. When nouns of different genders refer to things, a preceding adjective regularly agrees with the nearest noun <muchos lápices y plumas many pencils and pens>.
Feminine Form of Adjectives
Adjectives ending in -o in the masculine form the feminine by changing the -o to -a <seco, seca dry>. Many adjectives ending in -or, -on, -an and adjectives of nationality form the feminine by adding -a. Note that the rules for accentuation must be observed <holgazán, holgazana lazy>. Adjectives that end in -e have the same form in the masculine and feminine, as do most adjectives that end in other vowels or consonants <grande big, feliz happy, popular popular, agrícola agricultural>.
Plural of Adjectives
Adjectives form the plural by adding -s to a singular ending in a vowel, and -es to one ending in a consonant <rico, ricos rich, hablador, habladores talkative>.
Apocopation of Adjectives
The following adjectives drop their final -o when they precede a masculine singular noun:
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alguno <algún día some day>
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bueno <un buen caballo a good horse>
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malo <un mal año a bad year>
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ninguno <ningún dinero no money>
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postrero <el postrer suspiro the last sigh>
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primero <el primer capítulo the first chapter>
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tercero <el tercer piso the third floor>
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uno <un poema a poem>
Ciento becomes cien when it precedes a noun or a numeral larger than itself <cien mil soldados a hundred thousand soldiers, cien casas a hundred houses>.
Grande usually becomes gran before a singular noun of either gender <un gran hombre a great man, gran felicidad great happiness>.
Santo becomes San when used before the name of a saint <San Pablo Saint Paul> except Santo Domingo and Santo Tomás.
Position of Adjectives
An adjective follows the noun when it is used to describe a noun objectively, to emphasize a special characteristic, or to differentiate the noun from other members of its group <arte italiano Italian art>. An adjective precedes the noun when it denotes a usual or inherent characteristic <la blanca nieve the white snow>.
With many adjectives the meaning is more literal and emphatic when the adjective follows the noun, and more rhetorical when the adjective precedes the noun <mis zapatos viejos my old shoes, mi viejo amigo my old friend>. Some adjectives have developed distinct meanings for each position <una casa grande a big house, un gran hombre a great man>.
Limiting adjectives precede the noun. These include numerals <dos cartas two letters>; possessive adjectives <nuestra casa our house>; demonstrative adjectives <esta mesa this table>; and indefinite adjectives such as alguno (some), cada (each), ninguno (none), otro (other, another), and todo (all) <otro ejemplo another example>.
Adjectives Used as Nouns
In Spanish, the adjective is used substantively much more freely than in English <el anciano the old man>. The neuter article lo combines with the masculine singular form of the adjective to form an abstract noun <lo bueno the good>.
Comparison of Adjectives
The comparative degree is formed by placing más (more) or menos (less) before the positive form of the adjective <más pobre poorer, menos feliz less happy>.
The following adjectives have irregular comparative forms:
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mucho much, más more
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poco little, menos less
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bueno good, mejor better
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malo bad, peor worse
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grande big, mayor larger
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pequeño small, menor smaller
The nearest equivalent to the English superlative degree is the use of the definite article or a possessive adjective before the comparative <el más pobre the poorest one, mi mejor amigo my best friend>. To express a high degree of quality without making a comparison, -ísimo is added to the positive form of the adjective <una niña lindísima a very pretty little girl>.
Possessive Adjectives
The possessives agree in person with the possessor and in number and gender with the thing possessed <nuestra tía our aunt, nuestros libros our books>.The possessive is repeated before each noun <su casa y su coche his house and his car>, except when two or more nouns refer to identical persons or ideas.
Since su, sus have many possible meanings, a phrase such as de él (of his) or de ustedes (of yours) may be used for clarification <los padres de ella her parents>.
| Used before the noun |
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Singular |
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Plural |
|
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
|
| 1st Person |
mi(s)
|
mi(s)
|
my |
nuestro(s)
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nuestra(s)
|
our |
| 2nd Person |
tu(s)
|
tu(s)
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your (familiar)
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vuestro(s)
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vuestra(s)
|
your |
| 3rd Person |
su(s)
|
su(s)
|
his, her, its, your (formal)
|
su(s)
|
su(s)
|
their, your |
| Used after the noun |
|
Singular |
|
Plural |
|
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
|
| 1st Person |
mío(s)
|
mía(s)
|
my, of mine |
nuestro(s)
|
nuestra(s)
|
our, of ours |
| 2nd Person |
tuyo(s)
|
tuya(s)
|
your, of yours |
vuestro(s)
|
vuestra(s)
|
your, of yours |
| 3rd Person |
suyo(s)
|
suya(s)
|
his, of his, her, of hers, its, your, of yours |
suyo(s)
|
suya(s)
|
their, of theirs, your, of yours |
Demonstrative Adjectives
|
Masculine |
Feminine |
|
| Singular |
este
|
esta
|
this |
| Plural |
estos
|
estas
|
these |
| Singular |
ese
|
esa
|
that |
| Plural |
esos
|
esas
|
those |
| Singular |
aquel
|
aquella
|
that (distant)
|
| Plural |
aquellos
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aquellas
|
those (distant)
|
The adjective este and its corresponding feminine and plural forms refer to that which is near to or associated with the speaker in place, time, or thought <estos zapatos que llevo son italianos these shoes that I am wearing are Italian>.
The adjective ese and its corresponding forms refer to that which is near to or in some way connected with the person spoken to <déme ese lápiz que tiene en la mano give me that pencil that you have in your hand>.
The adjective aquel and its corresponding forms refer to what is distant in place, time, or mental association from both the speaker and the person addressed <el imperio romano floreció durante aquel siglo the Roman Empire flourished during that century>.
THE ADVERB
Formation of Adverbs
Adverbs may be formed from adjectives by adding -mente (-ly) to the feminine singular form <nuevo, nuevamente new, newly>. An accent on the adjective is retained <cortés, cortésmente courteous, courteously>. When two adjectives of this type are used together and are to be transformed into adverbs, the ending -mente is joined to the second adjective only <ella escribió clara y rápidamente she wrote clearly and rapidly>.
Position of Adverbs
Short adverbs follow the verbs as closely as possible <Juan trata mal a su hermana John treats his sister badly>. Longer adverbs or adverbial phrases may occur in other positions <saludó a la profesora cortésmente, saludó a la profesora con cortesía he greeted the professor courteously>. An adverb modifying an adjective or adverb immediately precedes it <no corrió tan rápido como yo he didn't run as fast as I did> <Juana es muy rica Jane is very rich>.
Comparison of Adverbs
The comparative degree is formed by placing más (more) or menos (less) before the positive form of the adverb < más temprano earlier, menos rápidamente less rapidly>. The superlative of adverbs is formed with the neuter article lo <lo más rápidamente most rapidly>. The following adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms:
- mucho much, más more, lo más the most
- poco little, menos less, lo menos the least
- bien well, mejor better, lo mejor the best
- mal badly, peor worse, lo peor the worst
THE PRONOUN
Personal Pronouns
Subject Personal Pronouns
Since the Spanish verb has distinctive forms for the first and second persons, the subject personal pronouns are normally omitted for those forms <estoy enferma I am ill, estamos enfermos we are ill>. They may be used for emphasis <yo pago la comida si tú pagas la propina I will pay for the meal if you leave the tip>. Since the third person endings may be used to refer to several possible subjects (you, he, she, it), the subject pronoun is often included for clarity <ella tiene hambre she is hungry>.
Usted
Usted and ustedes are the pronouns of address used in formal speech. They have lost all feeling of class distinction that they had long ago as the shortened forms of vuestra merced and vuestras mercedes. Now they are used to address people whom one respects or strangers.
Usted is not omitted as a subject pronoun <usted puede entrar ahora you can come in now>, but it need not be repeated in the same sentence <usted no pide, manda como reina you do not request, you command like a queen>.
Usted may be abbreviated to Ud. or Vd. and ustedes to Uds. or Vds.
Tú, Vosotros, and VosThe second person pronouns tú and vosotros are used in familiar discourse  in family life, among friends, and in addressing children or animals. The second person familiar should not be used as a sign of inferiority: a beggar is addressed as usted; servants are addressed in the second person only when they are felt to be members of the family.
Vosotros is the plural form of the second person and may be used by a speaker to address his audience, or by an author to address his readers.
Vos is used instead of usted in poetic style to address God or an eminent person. In many parts of Latin America vos has replaced tú as the second person singular pronoun and, as such, is used to address one's family members or friends.
After a Preposition
The forms of the personal pronoun used after prepositions are the same as those used as the subject of a verb (él, ella, usted, nosotros, vosotros, ellos, ellas, ustedes) except in the cases of mí, ti, and sí <lo compré para ti I bought it for you>. When the preposition is con (with), the syllablego is added and the accent is dropped <conmigo, contigo, consigo>.
Third Person Object Pronouns
There is much individual and regional variation in the use of third person object pronouns.
As indirect objects, le and les are the preferable forms.
As direct object in the masculine gender, le or les is preferred for persons and lo or los for things. It is also acceptable to use lo or los to refer to persons as direct objects. The feminine direct objects are la and las.
Position of Object Pronouns
An object pronoun generally precedes the verb <me dio el libro he gave me the book>. Exceptions:
When a conjugated verb is used with an infinitive or present participle, the object pronouns can either precede the conjugated verb or be attached to the infinitive or participle <voy a leerlo, lo voy a leer I am going to read it> <estoy leyéndolo, lo estoy leyendo I am reading it>.
In affirmative commands, the object pronoun must follow the verb and is attached to it <léalo a su madre read it to your mother>.
When an indirect object and a direct object pronoun are used together, the indirect precedes the direct object pronoun <no te lo doy I won't give it to you> <léamelo read it to me>.
If both pronouns are of the third person, se is used instead of the indirect object le or les <se lo di I gave it to him>. This se is not to be confused with the reflexive se <se las lavaron they washed them>.
Repetition of Personal Pronoun
The direct and indirect object forms of the personal pronoun can never be stressed or emphatic. If emphasis is needed, the prepositional form is used in addition to the object pronoun <a mí me dan miedo they frighten me>. When the reference of an object pronoun is not sufficiently clear, it is made explicit by adding the prepositional form <a ella le debo esta ansia I owe this anxiety to her>. In the example, le could refer to any number of people (a él, a ella, a usted), and the a ella clarifies its meaning.
Reflexive Pronouns
When the subject and the object (direct or indirect) of a sentence are the same person or thing, a reflexive form is used. For the first and second persons it is the same as the object pronoun form. Se is used for the third person <Elena se miró en el espejo Ellen looked at herself in the mirror>.
The reflexive pronoun also serves for the reciprocal construction which is equivalent to 'each other' or 'one another' <se pegaron they hit each other>. When the reciprocal action is not clear from the context, it is explained by adding a phrase such as uno a otro or unos a otros <se mataron unos a otros they killed each other (as opposed to committing suicide)>.
The pronoun sí can also be used to express a reflexive action <lo dijo para sí he said it to himself> or a reciprocal situation <cambiaron una mirada entre sí they gave each other a look>.
Neuter Personal Pronouns
Since all nouns in Spanish have a gender, the neuter personal pronouns are used only to refer to an idea or to an unidentified object in the singular. The pronoun ello is rarely found, but lo is frequently used <no lo sabe nadie no one knows it>.
Possessive Pronouns
|
el mío, la mía, los míos, las mías, lo mío
|
mine
|
|
el tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las tuyas, lo tuyo
|
yours (familiar sing.)
|
|
el nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las nuestras, lo nuestro
|
ours
|
|
el vuestro, la vuestra, los vuestros, las vuestras, lo vuestro
|
yours (familiar pl.)
|
|
el suyo, la suya, los suyos, las suyas, lo suyo
|
his, hers, its, theirs, yours (formal)
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The possessive pronoun agrees in gender and number with the thing possessed <él tiene sus guantes pero yo no tengo los míos he has his gloves but I don't have mine>. Since suyo covers many cases, a phrase such as la de usted (yours) or los de ella (hers) may be substituted for suyo for clarity <mis amigos y los de usted my friends and yours>.
The neuter of the possessive pronouns is used to denote one's belongings in a general sense <todo lo mío all that is mine>.
Demonstrative Pronouns
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Masculine
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Feminine
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Neuter
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Singular
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éste
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ésta
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esto
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this, this one
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Plural
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éstos
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éstas
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these
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Singular
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ése
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ésa
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eso
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that, that one
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Plural
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ésos
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ésas
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those
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Singular
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aquél
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aquélla
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aquello
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that, that one (distant)
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Plural
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aquéllos
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aquéllas
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those (distant)
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The pronoun éste refers to that which is near or associated with the speaker in time, place, or thought <éste es el libro a que me refiero this is the book to which I am referring>.
The pronoun ése refers to that which is near or in some way connected with the person spoken to <no quiero ésa que tienes I do not want that one that you have>.
The pronoun aquél refers to that which is distant in place, time, or mental association from both the speaker and the person addressed <compré aquélla que vi en el escaparate el año pasado I bought that one that I saw in the window last year>.
The neuter forms (esto, eso, aquello) are used to refer to an idea or to an object not yet identified <¿qué es eso? what is that?>.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause and joins it to the preceding noun or pronoun that is its antecedent.
Que (who, whom, that, which) is the most commonly used of the relative pronouns. It is invariable in form. As a subject or object of a verb it may refer to persons or things <el libro que leyó the book that he read> <el hombre que habla the man who is speaking>. As the object of a preposition it can refer only to things, and is usually found after the prepositions a (to), con (with), de (from), or en (in) <la pluma con que escribo the pen with which I am writing>.
Quien, quienes (who, whom) can refer only to a person, with whom it agrees in number <el hombre con quien hablé the man with whom I spoke> <las chicas de quienes hablamos the girls of whom we are speaking>. Quien may include its antecedent in a use equivalent to the English 'he who' <quien estudia siempre aprenderá he who studies will always learn>.
The relatives el cual, la cual, los cuales, las cuales and el que, la que, los que, las que are practically synonymous in their use. They are used instead of que to refer to persons or things after prepositions other than a, con, de, or en <la muchacha detrás de la cual estaba sentado the girl behind whom I was sitting> <la casa dentro de la que se celebró la fiesta the house in which the party was held>. They are also used to refer to the more distant of two possible antecedents when other relative pronouns would be ambiguous <la madre de Juan, la cual está visitándonos John's mother, who is visiting us>.
Cuanto, a neuter pronoun form, is invariable and is equivalent to 'all' or 'everything' <cuanto usted me ha contado parece increíble all that you have told me seems incredible>. The relative cuanto, cuanta, cuantas is used to refer to quantity <comeré cuanto usted me dé I will eat as much as you give me>.
Cuyo, cuya, cuyos, cuyas (whose) is a relative possessive pronoun used mainly to refer to people. It agrees in number and gender with the thing possessed <es una mujer cuyo nombre es bien conocido she is a woman whose name is well known>.
Interrogative Pronouns
The interrogative pronouns are:
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¿qué? what?
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¿quién?, ¿quiénes? who?, whom?
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¿cuál?, ¿cuáles? which?, which one(s)?
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¿cuánto?, ¿cuánta?, ¿cuántos?, ¿cuántas? how much?, how many?
¿Quién?, ¿quiénes? refer only to persons and ¿qué? refers only to things <¿quién es ese chico? who is that boy?> <¿qué es esto? what is this?>.
As a pronoun, ¿qué? is used in asking for a description, definition, or explanation <¿qué es un archivador? what is a file cabinet?>. In contrast, ¿cuál?, ¿cuáles? are used when asking for a choice or selection <¿cuál prefieres? which one do you prefer?>.
¿Cuánto?, ¿cuánta?, ¿cuántos?, ¿cuántas? are used to form a question of quantity <¿cuánto tienes? how much do you have?>.
Note that ¿qué? and ¿cuánto(s)?, ¿cuánta(s)? are also used as interrogative adjectives <¿qué libro desea usted? what book do you want?> <¿cuántos lápices necesitan? how many pencils do they need?>.
The Personal a
The preposition a should be used before a direct object that belongs to any of the following groups:
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proper names of persons and animals <voy a buscar a Blanca I am going to look for Blanche> but not things <voy a buscar un libro I am going to look for a book>
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geographical names <he visitado a Madrid muchas veces I have visited Madrid many times> but not those that require the definite article <he visitado el Perú muchas veces I have visited Peru many times>
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common nouns that refer to persons <mataron a nuestro hermano they killed our brother> but not those that refer to things <mataron un gallo they killed a rooster>
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things personified <al anochecer insultaba a la luna at nightfall he would insult the moon> but not things considered in their ordinary state <al anochecer miraba la luna at nightfall he would look at the moon>
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pets or personified animals <María quiere a su perro Mary loves her dog> but not animals in a general sense <María vio un elefante en el jardín zoológico Mary saw an elephant at the zoo>.
Negation
Negation in Spanish is expressed by the use of no which precedes the verb <no comprendo I don't understand>, and can be separated from it only by object personal pronouns <no te comprendo I don't understand you>.
The negative adverbs, adjectives, and pronouns are: jamás (never), nada (nothing), nadie (no one), ni (neither, nor), ningún, ninguno(a) (no, none, not any), no (no), nunca (never), and tampoco (neither, nor). These negatives usually follow the verb <no lo sabe nadie no one knows it>. When, for emphasis or any other reason, a negative other than no precedes the verb, no is omitted <nadie lo sabe no one knows it>.
Conjunctions
The most frequently used simple coordinating conjunctions are y (and), o (or), pero (but), mas (but), sino (but), and ni (nor).
Before a word beginning with i or hi, y is replaced by e <padre e hijo father and son>.
Before a word beginning with o or ho, o is replaced by u <setenta u ochenta seventy or eighty>.
Pero (and less frequently mas) is the usual conjunction that translates the English 'but' <quería venir, pero no pude I wanted to come, but I couldn't>.
Sino is used after a negative statement in the sense of 'but on the contrary' <no es fácil, sino muy difícil it's not easy, but very difficult>.
Ni is regularly used in double negation <no tiene ni amigos ni dinero he has neither friends nor money>.
Many complex conjunctions are formed by adding que to an adverb or to a preposition: hasta que (until), sin que (without), aunque (although), porque (because), puesto que (since).
Titles of Address and Family Names
The titles don and doña have no equivalent in English. Don is used only before a given name <Don Carlos>. Its use does not imply extreme familiarity. It is used between friends of age and dignity, as a term of familiarity mingled with respect by the young to their elders, and by people of humble station to those whom they consider their superiors. In formal address, don is used after señor when both given and family names are used <Señor Don Eduardo Sanchez y Robles>. The abbreviations are D. and Da.
The titles señor (Mr.), señora (Mrs.), and señorita (Miss) are used before family names <Señor Gonzalez Mr. Gonzalez>. The abbreviated forms are Sr., Sra., and Srta.
Spanish-speaking people use two family names. Frequently, though not always, these two last names are connected by the conjunction y. The first one is the father's family name, which descends continuously down the male line; the second one is the mother's family name, which is lost in the second generation or by a daughter at marriage. A married woman uses her father's family name followed by the preposition de and the first or even both family names of the husband. Thus la señorita Rodríguez y Castro marries el señor Molino y Guerra. She becomes by her marriage la señora Rodríguez de Molino. Her son Pablo is addressed formally as Señor Don Pablo Molino y Rodríguez. Many people prefer to use only the first family name in daily life; thus the woman above would be called la señorita Rodríguez (before her marriage) and her son would be called el señor Molino. The second family name should never be used alone, although it is sometimes used by an author as his or her pen name.
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